<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><article article-type="editorial" xml:lang="en">
   <front>
      <journal-meta>
         <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">PALEVO</journal-id>
         <issn>1631-0683</issn>
         <publisher>
            <publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name>
         </publisher>
      </journal-meta>
      <article-meta>
         <article-id pub-id-type="pii">S1631-0683(03)00106-4</article-id>
         <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.crpv.2003.09.018</article-id>
         <article-categories>
            <subj-group subj-group-type="type">
               <subject>Mini review</subject>
            </subj-group>
            <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
               <subject>Evolution</subject>
            </subj-group>
         </article-categories>
         <title-group>
            <article-title>Ontogenetic changes of the spiral cords as keys innovation of the muricid sculptural patterns: the example of the <italic>Muricopsis–Murexsul</italic> lineages (Gastropoda: Muricidae: Muricopsinae)</article-title>
         </title-group>
         <contrib-group content-type="authors">
            <contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
               <name>
                  <surname>Merle</surname>
                  <given-names>Didier</given-names>
               </name>
               <email>dimerle@aol.com</email>
               <xref rid="AFF1" ref-type="aff">
                  <sup>a</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <name>
                  <surname>Houart</surname>
                  <given-names>Roland</given-names>
               </name>
               <email>roland.houart@skynet.be</email>
               <xref rid="AFF2" ref-type="aff">
                  <sup>b</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <aff-alternatives id="AFF1">
               <aff>
                  <label>a</label> Unité de paléontologie, Département « Histoire de la Terre », Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, UMR 5143, 8, rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France</aff>
            </aff-alternatives>
            <aff-alternatives id="AFF2">
               <aff>
                  <label>b</label> Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique, rue Vautier, 29, 1000 Bruxelles, Belgium</aff>
            </aff-alternatives>
         </contrib-group>
         <pub-date-not-available/>
         <volume>2</volume>
         <issue seq="18">6-7</issue>
         <issue-id pub-id-type="pii">S1631-0683(00)X0014-0</issue-id>
         <fpage seq="0" content-type="normal">547</fpage>
         <lpage content-type="normal">561</lpage>
         <history>
            <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2003-06-24"/>
            <date date-type="revised" iso-8601-date="2003-09-15"/>
            <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2003-09-15"/>
         </history>
         <permissions>
            <copyright-statement>© 2003 Académie des sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.</copyright-statement>
            <copyright-year>2003</copyright-year>
            <copyright-holder>Académie des sciences</copyright-holder>
         </permissions>
         <self-uri xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" content-type="application/pdf" xlink:href="main.pdf">
                        Full (PDF)
                    </self-uri>
         <abstract abstract-type="author">
            <p>The primary cords of 68 species belonging to the <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> lineages (Priabonian to Recent) are analysed. The study of their development allows distinguishing three derived sculptural patterns in <italic>Muricopsis</italic> and three in the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group. They appear late in the evolutionary history of the studied lineages, mainly in tropical waters. They are produced by heterochronies affecting precise cords by paedomorphosis, whereas others poorly evolved or may be hypermorphic. These results suggest that the phase of sculptural increase yielding the primitive pattern is followed by a selective phase, preserving or increasing the relief of the probable most functional cords. </p>
         </abstract>
         <trans-abstract abstract-type="author" xml:lang="fr">
            <p>
               <bold>Les modifications de l’ontogenèse des cordons spiraux, clés d’innovation des types de sculpture chez les Muricidae : l’exemple des lignées de <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> (Gastropoda : Muricidae : Muricopsinae).</bold> Les cordons primaires de 68 espèces des lignées <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> (Priabonien à Actuel) sont analysés. L’étude de leur croissance permet de détecter trois types sculpturaux dérivés chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et trois dans le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>. Ils apparaissent tardivement dans l’histoire évolutive des lignées étudiées, principalement en milieu tropical. Ils s’expriment grâce à des hétérochronies de développement affectant des cordons précis par paedomorphose, tandis que d’autres cordons évoluent peu ou deviennent hypermorphiques. Ces résultats suggèrent que la phase d’accroissement sculptural générant le modèle primitif est suivie d’une phase sélective préservant ou développant le relief des cordons semblant les plus fonctionnels. </p>
         </trans-abstract>
         <kwd-group>
            <unstructured-kwd-group>ontogeny, heterochronies, spiral sculpture, Muricidae, biogeography</unstructured-kwd-group>
         </kwd-group>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="fr">
            <unstructured-kwd-group>ontogénie, hétérochronies, sculpture spirale, Muricidae, biogéographie</unstructured-kwd-group>
         </kwd-group>
         <custom-meta-group>
            <custom-meta>
               <meta-name>miscellaneous</meta-name>
               <meta-value>Written on invitation of the Editorial Board</meta-value>
            </custom-meta>
         </custom-meta-group>
      </article-meta>
   </front>
   <body>
      <sec xml:lang="fr">
         <title>Version française abrégée</title>
         <sec>
            <label>1</label>
            <title>Introduction</title>
            <p>Les Muricidae (Campanien–Maastrichtien à Actuel) représentent une riche famille de Gastéropodes marins carnivores et épibiontes [26, 28]. Une forte variation de la forme de la coquille caractérise leur radiation et implique fréquemment des transformations de la sculpture spirale dont la morphogenèse a été peu étudiée. Les lignées de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> Bucquoy &amp; Dautzenberg, 1882 et de <italic>Murexsul</italic> Iredale, 1915 appartiennent à la sous-famille des Muricopsinae Radwin &amp; D’Attilio, 1971 et présentent différents types de sculpture. Elles constituent un bon exemple pour analyser le rôle des altérations ontogénétiques modifiant la forme des cordons dans la production d’innovations sculpturales. La première partie de la note sera donc consacrée à la recherche des hétérochronies de développement générant de nouveaux types sculpturaux et la seconde à leur distribution biogéographique.</p>
            <p>L’étude se fonde sur l’examen de 29 espèces de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et de 39 espèces du groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic> (voir Matériel), l’ensemble se distribuant du Priabonien à l’Actuel. Afin de définir des homologies structurales au sein de la sculpture spirale, la méthode adoptée a consisté à se référer à la séquence d’apparition des cordons (critère ontogénétique) et à leur position topologique. Cette méthode, utilisée dans différents travaux [9, 10, 12, 13, 17, 18–22], est nécessaire, car elle permet de décrire des altérations ontogénétiques concernant des cordons homologues. Appliquée à l’étude des Muricidae primitifs du début du Paléogène appartenant aux genres de Muricinae <italic>Paziella</italic> Jousseaume, 1880 et <italic>Poirieria</italic> Jousseaume, 1880, elle a déjà permis de montrer que des hétérochronies de développement [1, 4, 5, 25] sont impliquées dans la transformation morphologique des cordons. Ainsi, les évolutions paedomorphiques de cordons (décélération et post-déplacement) génèrent un déclin de leur expression et, inversement, les évolutions péramorphiques (accélération et pré-déplacement) entraînent un accroissement de leur expression [17, 21, 22]. De plus, les comparaisons entre les espèces de <italic>Paziella</italic> et de <italic>Poirieria</italic> soulignent que ces évolutions peuvent s’organiser selon un <italic>pattern</italic> en mosaïque [3], les cordons, évoluant parfois indépendamment les uns des autres. C’est précisément ce concept d’évolution en mosaïque [3] des cordons qui est exploité ici pour détecter des innovations de la sculpture spirale chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et dans le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>2</label>
            <title>L’émergence de la sculpture de type Muricopsinae</title>
            <sec>
               <p>Les Muricidae primitifs du Paléogène basal (exemple : <italic>Paziella, Poirieria</italic> et <italic>Pterynotus</italic>), attribués à la sous-famille des Muricinae, diffèrent des Muricopsinae par une sculpture spirale pauvre en cordons. Une sculpture spirale plus riche, proche de celle des Muricopsinae, est signalée dans l’Yprésien inférieur avec <italic>Eofavartia</italic> Merle, 2002 (Yprésien–Priabonien, océan Atlantique) [19]. L’analyse cladistique suggère que <italic>Eofavartia</italic> ne porte pas toutes les apomorphies du clade des Muricopsinae (Fig. 1), mais peut être considérée comme un groupe-frère potentiel [19]. L’étude de la sculpture axiale et des micro-caractères [17, 19] permet d’individualiser deux branches majeures au sein de ce clade, celle des <italic>Favartia</italic> et des <italic>Pygmaepterys</italic> et celle des <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et des <italic>Murexsul</italic> [17, 19].</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Les Muricidae primitifs se caractérisent par l’apparition tardive des cordons IP, P4, P5 et P6 (lorsqu’ils sont présents), par l’absence de ADP, MP et ABP sur le canal siphonal et par des épines de cordons manquant fréquemment ou peu développées. En revanche, les individus juvéniles (un à trois tours) d’<italic>Eofavartia</italic> présentent une apparition précoce de IP (rampe infrasuturale), de P1 à P6 (partie convexe du tour) et de ADP à ABP (canal siphonal) [17]. Ce nouveau type de sculpture indique une sélection en faveur de jeunes coquilles robustes et résulte probablement d’une évolution par pré-déplacement, l’ensemble des cordons étant plus précoces que chez les Muricidae primitifs (Fig. 1). Le plan de construction de la sculpture spirale des Muricopsinae (Fig. 1) diffère de celui <italic>Eofavartia</italic> par plusieurs transformations sculpturales interprétées comme des synapomorphies (P6 sur le canal siphonal, atrophie de P6 au regard de P5 et ADP et absence de D6). Ce plan de construction est signalé dès l’Eocène moyen chez <italic>?Favartia distans</italic> (Deshayes, 1835) [17, 19] et plus tardivement chez <italic>Murexsul</italic> (Priabonien, France et Australie), <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (Rupélien, France) et <italic>Favartia</italic> (Rupélien, Mississippi) [15, 17, 19]. La sculpture spirale des Muricopsinae reste peu différenciée au Rupélien. Ce n’est qu’au Chattien qu’apparaissent les premières transformations dans la branche <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic>.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>3</label>
         <title>Les types de sculpture spirale chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et dans le groupe des Murexsul</title>
         <sec>
            <p>Pour certains auteurs [17, 24, 27], <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et <italic>Murexsul</italic> sont des genres distincts, mais d’autres considèrent <italic>Murexsul</italic> comme un sous-genre [6–8, 16] ou comme synonyme [23]. Les deux genres semblent étroitement apparentés [17, 19], mais deux clades peuvent être distingués (Merle &amp; Houart, in prép.). En effet, <italic>Muricopsis</italic> possède des autapomorphies (nodosités sur la téléoconque, hypertrophie de D2 et plis columellaires développés). D’autre part, trois taxa apparaissent proches de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et de <italic>Murexsul. Risomurex</italic> Olsson &amp; McGinty, 1958, considérée comme sous-genre de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> [29], est restreint ici à quatre espèces (voir Matériel), tandis que <italic>Xastilia</italic> Bouchet &amp; Houart, 1994 [2] et <italic>Rolandiella</italic> Marshall &amp; Burch, 2000 [16] sont placés ici dans le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>. Leur sculpture sera donc analysée.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>3.1</label>
            <title>
               <italic>Muricopsis</italic>
            </title>
            <sec>
               <p>
                  <italic>Muricopsis</italic> comprend 31 espèces connues du Rupélien à l’Actuel. La morphologie de référence utilisée comme condition primitive de la sculpture spirale (Fig. 2A) est celle de <italic>M. (s.s.) crassicosta</italic> (Chattien, Europe). <italic>Muricopsis (s.s.)</italic> sp. (Rupélien, Landes) est plus ancien, mais seulement connu par un fragment [17]. Cette condition, très répandue s’observe chez 71% des espèces, dont les espèces-types de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et de <italic>Risomurex</italic> (Fig. 3A–C). La sculpture spirale correspond à une série de cordons primaires P1 à P5 (partie convexe du tour), P6 à MP (canal siphonal). Le relief décroît régulièrement de P1 à P5, le déclin maximum s’observant sur P6 qui est atrophié. ADP marque un accroissement du relief, déclinant à nouveau jusqu’à MP. Les cordons IP (rampe infrasuturale), ABP (canal siphonal) et des épines sur les nodosités peuvent être également présents chez les espèces les plus anciennes (ex : <italic>M. (s.s.) crassicosta</italic>, Chattien d’Europe), mais présentent de fréquentes variations intraspécifiques (apparition plus ou moins tardive de IP, épines plus ou moins développées et polymorphisme de ABP qui peut être présent ou absent). Les caractères de référence exploités au sein de la condition primitive seront donc restreints aux cordons allant de P1 à MP, car ils présentent le moins de variations intraspécifiques. Ainsi définis, trois types de sculpture diffèrent de cette condition et représentent des innovations (Fig. 3D-F).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Type <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic> (Figs 2A–3D) – Ce <italic>pattern</italic> sculptural résulte d’un ralentissement de la croissance de P3 à partir du quatrième tour de téléoconque. En fin de croissance, P3 est atrophié au regard de P2 et P4. Cette transformation, seulement connue chez <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic>, peut s’interpréter comme une évolution paedomorphique du cordon (décélération). Type <italic>M. (s.s.) zeteki</italic> (Fig. 3E) – Ce type de sculpture est connu chez trois espèces (voir § <italic>Matériel</italic>). Il correspond à une transformation de P2 s’atrophiant entre le troisième et le quatrième tour, puis s’absorbant partiellement avec la base de l’épine de P1. Le processus hétérochronique impliqué semble identique à celui de <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic>. Type <italic>M. suga</italic> (Fig. 3F) - Ce <italic>pattern</italic> s’observe chez quatre espèces (voir § <italic>Matériel</italic>). Il résulte d’une modification de P6 qui en croissant comme P5 et ADP, ne s’atrophie pas par rapport à eux. Comparée aux autres <italic>Muricopsis</italic>, cette modification indique une accélération de la croissance de P6, qui est « hyper-développé » au regard de la condition primitive.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>3.2</label>
            <title>Groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>
            </title>
            <sec>
               <p>Le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic> contient environ 55 espèces du Priabonien à l’Actuel en y incluant <italic>Xastilia</italic> et <italic>Rolandiella</italic>. La morphologie de référence utilisée comme condition primitive de la sculpture spirale (Fig. 2B) est <italic>M. prionotus</italic> (Priabonien, Australie). Elle est répandue chez 54% des espèces connues dont l’espèce-type du genre (Fig. 4B). Une variante de cette condition existe chez des espèces actuelles sud-africaines (Fig. 4C) perdant MP. Sur le plan de l’organisation des cordons, la condition primitive est comparable à celle de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (Fig. 2A–B) et de fréquentes variations s’observent sur les mêmes positions topologiques (IP et ABP). Trois types de sculpture dérivée (Fig. 4D–I), représentant des innovations, sont identifiés.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Type <italic>Rolandiella</italic> (Fig. 4D) – Cette sculpture, connue chez deux espèces, est caractérisée par un large espacement de P1 et de P2 sur le premier tour [16], ainsi que par l’atrophie progressive de P5 qui affaiblit l’ornementation spirale entre P4 et ADP. Type <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> (Fig. 4E–H) – Cette sculpture s’observe chez 32% des espèces examinées et résulte d’une décélération de P2 qui croît plus lentement que P1 et P3 et s’atrophie chez l’adulte. L’atrophie de P2 est plus ou moins forte selon les espèces examinées. <italic>M. ianlochi</italic> (Fig. 4H) porte une sculpture comparable, mais P1, P3 et ADP deviennent hypermorphiques à la suite d’une croissance accélérée. Type <italic>Xastilia</italic> (Fig. 4I) – <italic>Xastilia</italic> diffère du type <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> par l’atrophie progressive de P2 et P3 et par l’hypermorphie (accélération) de P1, P4 et ADP (17, Fig. 31). Type indéfini – trois espèces (voir § <italic>Matériel</italic>) d’aspect progénétique (hauteur voisine de 5 mm) portent une sculpture ambiguë. Elles ont quatre cordons primaires sur la partie convexe du tour au lieu de cinq, mais il est difficile de préciser si elles ont perdu P2 ou P5.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Finalement, les évolutions paedomorphiques de cordons s’observent fréquemment sur P2, MP et ABP, tandis que les évolutions péramorphiques plus rares conduisant à des hypermorphoses concernent P1, P3, P4 et ADP. Ce contraste peut s’expliquer par une contrainte de taille, tous les cordons ne pouvant pas s’accroître simultanément chez ces espèces d’une hauteur inférieure à 50 mm. Le fait que des cordons hypermorphiques ne s’observent que lorsque d’autres cordons s’atrophient (type <italic>Xastilia</italic> et <italic>Murexsul ianlochi</italic>) (Fig. 4H–I) vient à l’appui de cette hypothèse et suggère que les premiers ont un rôle plus fonctionnel que les autres.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>4</label>
         <title>Distribution biogéographique des sculptures</title>
         <sec>
            <p>
               <italic>Muricopsis–Muricopsis</italic> fréquente les eaux tropicales à tempérées chaudes de la Méditerranée, de l’Atlantique, de l’Est du Pacifique et de l’Ouest de l’Océan indien (Fig. 5). La sculpture primitive est distribuée sur toute l’aire du genre. La sculpture de type <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic> est localisée au Nord du Brésil [27] et celle de type <italic>M. (s.s.) zeteki</italic> à l’Est du Pacifique, bien que les fossiles soient connus du Pliocène atlantique (Trinidad). La sculpture de type <italic>M. (s.s.) suga</italic> s’étend en Afrique de l’Ouest, de la Mauritanie au Nord de l’Angola. Groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic> – L’aire de ce groupe est plus vaste que celui de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (Fig. 6). La sculpture primitive a une répartition cosmopolite, mais est surtout représentée dans les eaux tempérées du Sud de l’Australie, de Nouvelle-Zélande et d’Afrique du Sud. Les eaux tempérées australes et néo-zélandaises sont aussi occupées par la sculpture de type <italic>Rolandiella</italic>. En revanche, la sculpture de type <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> se rencontre essentiellement dans les eaux tropicales (Caraïbes, Est du Pacifique et Pacifique central), comme celle de type <italic>Xastilia</italic> qui est restreinte à la mer de Corail [2]. En définitive, à l’exception de la sculpture de type <italic>Rolandiella</italic>, les sculptures dérivées s’observent dans la zone intertropicale.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>5</label>
         <title>Conclusion</title>
         <sec>
            <p>L’étude de la croissance des cordons permet de distinguer trois types de sculpture dérivée chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et trois dans le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>. Ces sculptures apparaissent tardivement dans l’évolution des groupes analysés (Pliocène chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et Chattien dans le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>), principalement en milieu tropical (Figs 5–6). Elles sont produites par des hétérochronies de développement d’un à plusieurs cordons et indiquent donc une dissociation morphologique des éléments spiraux (Figs 2–4). L’ensemble des résultats suggère que la phase d’accroissement sculptural aboutissant à la sculpture primitive de <italic>Muricopsis</italic> et <italic>Murexsul</italic> (Figs 1–2), est suivie d’une phase sélective préservant ou développant seulement les cordons plus fonctionnels par péramorphose (Figs 3–4). L’étude d’autres Muricidae tropicaux (exemple : Rapaninae et Muricinae) serait nécessaire pour savoir si des cordons homologues sont selectionnés chez des types morphologiques différents et ainsi, de mieux cerner les aspects fonctionnels de la sculpture spirale dans la famille.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>1</label>
         <title>Introduction</title>
         <sec>
            <p>The Muricidae (Campanian/Maastrichtian to Recent) represent a rich family of marine carnivorous epibionts and include about 1000 fossil and 1500 recent species <xref rid="BIB26" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB28" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref>. One characteristic of this Cenozoic radiation is a strong variation of the shell shape, in which changes of the spiral sculpture are one of the major themes of the muricid diversification. However, the morphogenesis of the different architectural patterns, which can be explained by reorganizations of the spiral sculpture, have received few investigations. The lineages of <italic>Muricopsis</italic> Bucquoy &amp; Dautzenberg, 1882 (type-species: <italic>Murex blainvillei</italic> Payraudeau, 1826 (= <italic>Murex cristatus</italic> Brocchi, 1814)) and <italic>Murexsul</italic> Iredale, 1915 (type-species: <italic>Murex octogonus</italic> Quoy &amp; Gaymard, 1833 by O.D.) belong to the subfamily Muricopsinae Radwin &amp; d’Attilio, 1971. They bear several types of spiral sculpture and provide a good example to discuss whether ontogenetic changes of cords generate new patterns. In the first part of the paper, heterochronies yielding these patterns will be researched and in the second part, their biogeographical range will be commented.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>2</label>
         <title>Text-conventions and repository</title>
         <sec>
            <p>
               <italic>Text-conventions:</italic> P (in capital letters): primary cords (= first sequence of cords); IP: infrasutural primary cord; P1 shoulder cord; P2 to P6: primary cords of the convex part of the teleoconch whorl; ADP: adapical siphonal primary cords; MP: median siphonal primary cords; ABP: abapical siphonal primary cords; s (in small letters): secondary cords (= second sequence of cords); D (in capital letters): internal denticle of the outer lip; ID: infrasutural denticle; D1 to D6: adapical denticles (text conventions after Merle 2001 <xref rid="BIB18" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>).</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>
               <italic>Repository:</italic> BM(NH): Natural History Museum, London, UK; MNHN-DSE and MNHN-DHT: ‘Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle’, Paris (DSE: ‘Département Systématique et Évolution’; DHT: ‘Département Histoire de la Terre’); USNM: US National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC, USA; NMB: ‘Naturhistorisches Museum’, Basel, Switzerland; RH: Roland Houart material; DM: Didier Merle material; NMV: Natural Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia: NMNZ: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa, Wellington, Tongarewa, New-Zealand, MCNM: Museo de cienças naturales, Madrid, Spain; AMS: Australian Museum, Sydney, Australia.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>3</label>
         <title>Materials</title>
         <sec>
            <p>
               <italic>
                  <bold>Muricopsis</bold>
               </italic>
               <bold>(29 examined species)</bold> – <italic>Primitive pattern:</italic>
               <italic>M. (s.s.) caribbaea</italic> (Bartsch &amp; Rehder, 1939), 36 specimens = spm (RH and DM), Recent, Caribbean; <italic>M. (s.s.) crassicosta</italic> (Benoist, 1873), &gt; 100 spm (various coll.), Chattian-Lower Miocene, Aquitaine basin; <italic>M. (s.s.) chiarae</italic> Bozzetti, 1991, 2 spm (RH), Recent, Somalia; <italic>M. (s.s.) cristata</italic> (Brocchi, 1814), &gt; 100 spm (various coll.), Pliocene-Recent, Mediterranean Sea; <italic>M. (s.s.) dujardini</italic> (Peyrot, 1938), &gt; 50 spm (MNHN-DHT), Middle Miocene, West-France; <italic>M. (s.s.) gilbertharrisi</italic> (Weisbord, 1962), 4 spm (RH), Recent, Venezuela; <italic>M. (s.s.) gofasi</italic> (Houart, 1993), 13 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) marcusi</italic> Vokes, 1994, 2 spm (DM), 1 spm (RH) Recent, Brazil; <italic>M. (s.s.) mathildae</italic> Rolan &amp; Fernandez, 1991, 2 spm (RH), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) neococheana</italic> (Pilsbry, 1900), 3 spm (RH), Recent, Brazil; <italic>M. (s.s.) omanensis</italic> Smythe &amp; Oliver, 1986, 2 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, Oman Sea; <italic>M. (s.s.) perexigua</italic> Vokes, 1994, 1 sp (RH), Recent, Honduras; <italic>M. (s.s.) principensis</italic> Rolan &amp; Fernandez, 1991, holotype (MCNM), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (Risomurex) rosea</italic> (Reeve, 1846), 12 spm (RH), Recent, Antigua, Cuba, Bahamas; <italic>M. (s.s.) rutilus mariangelae</italic> Rolán &amp; Fernandes, 1991, 11 spm (RH), Recent, West Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) rutilus rutilus</italic> (Reeve, 1846), 13 spm (RH.), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) scabrosa</italic> (Dall, 1915), 1 spm (USNM), Aquitanian, Florida; <italic>M. (R.) schrammi</italic> (Crosse, 1863), 6 spm (RH), Recent, Lesser Antilles; <italic>M. (R.) deformis</italic> (Reeve, 1846), 8 spm (RH), Venezuela; <italic>M. (s.s.) seminolensis</italic> Vokes &amp; Houart, 1986, 22 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (R.) withrowi</italic> (Vokes &amp; Houart, 1986), 15 spm (RH, IRSNB, and DM), Recent, Lesser Antilles, Venezuela; <italic>Muricopsis (s.s.)</italic> sp., 1 spm (MNHN-DSE, Lozouet coll.), Rupelian, Aquitaine basin; <italic>M. josei</italic>
               <italic>pattern</italic>: <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic> (Vokes, 1994), 7 spm (RH), Recent, Brazil. <italic>M. zeteki</italic>
               <italic>pattern:</italic>
               <italic>M. (s.s.) galbensis</italic> (Jung, 1969), 3 spm (NMB), Pliocene, Trinidad; <italic>M. (s.s.) pauxilla</italic> (Adams, 1854), 6 spm (RH), Recent, Mexico; <italic>M. (s.s.) zeteki</italic> (Hertlein &amp; Strong, 1951), 41 spm (RH), Recent, Panama, Galapagos, Mexico, Ecuador, Peru. <italic>M. suga</italic>
               <italic>pattern:</italic>
               <italic>M. (s.s.) annobonensis</italic> Houart &amp; Rolán, 2001 &gt; 100 spm (RH, E. Rolán, &amp; type material), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) fusiformis fusiformis</italic> (Gmelin, 1791), &gt; 50 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) fusiformis punctata</italic> Houart, 1990, &gt; 50 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, West Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) haidari</italic> Houart, 2003, 5 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, West Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) suga suga</italic> (Fischer-Piette, 1942), &gt; 100 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, West-Africa; <italic>M. (s.s.) suga discissus</italic> Houart, 1990, &gt; 50 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, West Africa.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>
               <italic>
                  <bold>Murexsul</bold>
               </italic>
               <bold>group (39 examined species)</bold> – <italic>Primitive pattern:</italic>
               <italic>M. aradasii</italic> (Monterosato, 1833), &gt; 50 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent Mediterranean Sea; <italic>M. diamantina</italic> (Houart, 1991), 3 spm (AMS, MNHN-DSE), Recent, South-Australia; <italic>M. elatensis</italic> (Emerson &amp; D'Attilio, 1979) 1 spm (RH), Recent, Eilat; <italic>M. elatospira</italic> (Cossmann &amp; Peyrot, 1924), &gt; 50 spm (MNHN-DSE), Chattian, Aquitaine; <italic>M. emipowlusi</italic> (Abbott, 1954), 6 spm (RH), Recent, Gulf of Mexico; <italic>M. interserratus</italic> (Sowerby, 1879), 3 spm (RH), Recent, Japan; <italic>M. mariae</italic> Finlay, 1930, 6 spm (RH, MNZ), Recent, New-Zealand; <italic>M. meunieri</italic> (Cossmann &amp; Lambert, 1884), &gt; 50 spm (various coll.), Rupelian, Aquitaine and Paris basins; <italic>M. mbotyiensis</italic> (Houart, 1991), 2 spm (holotype and paratype NM), Recent, Transkei, South-Africa; <italic>M. minor</italic> Lozouet, 1999, &gt; 50 spm, Chattian (MNHN-DSE); <italic>M. multispinosus</italic> (Sowerby, 1904), 2 spm (RH), Recent, Japan; <italic>M. nothokieneri</italic> Vokes, 1978, 23 spm (RH, Tracey coll.), Recent, South-Africa; <italic>M. octogonus</italic> (Quoy &amp; Gaimard, 1833), 24 spm (RH, MNHN-DHT and NMNZ), Pleistocene-Recent, New-Zealand; <italic>M. planiliratus</italic> (Reeve, 1845), 10 spm (RH), Recent, West Australia; <italic>M. prionotus</italic> (Tate, 1888), 13 spm (NMV), Priabonian, South-Australia; <italic>M. purpurispina</italic> (Ponder, 1972), 2 spm (RH), Recent, NSW, Australia; <italic>M. reunionensis</italic> Houart, 1985, 16 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, Reunion Isl.; <italic>M. tokubei</italic> (Nakamigawa &amp; Habe, 1964), 9 spm (RH), Recent, Japan, Philippines, S. Africa, Mozambique; <italic>M. valae</italic> (Houart, 1991), 2 (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, South-Africa; <italic>Murexsul</italic> sp 1, 8 spm (Le Renard coll.), Priabonian, Cotentin; <italic>Murexsul</italic> sp 2, 1 spm (Marquet coll.), Aquitanian, Belgium. <italic>M. oxytatus</italic>
               <italic>pattern:</italic>
               <italic>M. armatus</italic> (Adams, 1854), 17 spm (RH and DM), Recent, Panama, Mexico; <italic>M. cevikeri</italic> (Houart, 2000), &gt; 30 spm (MNHN-DSE and RH), Recent Mediterranean Sea; <italic>M. cuspidatus</italic> (Sowerby, 1879), &gt; 100 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, New-Caledonia; <italic>M. huberti</italic> (Radwin &amp; d’Attilio, 1976), 14 spm (RH), Recent, Grenadines Isl. and French Antilles; <italic>M. ianlochi</italic> (Houart, 1986), 2 spm (MNHN-DSE), Recent, Tasman Sea; <italic>M. jaliscoensis</italic> (Radwin &amp; d’Attilio, 1970), 3 spm (RH), Recent, Mexico; <italic>M. leonardi</italic> (Houart, 1993), 3 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, Christmas Isl. (Java); <italic>M. metivieri</italic> (Houart, 1988), 3 spm (MNHN-DSE), Recent, Coral sea; <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> (Smith, 1938), 25 spm (RH and DM), Recent, Mexico, Honduras, Cuba; <italic>M. rostralis</italic> (Grateloup, 1847), &gt; 100 spm (various coll.), Chattian-Aquitanian, Aquitaine; <italic>M. spiculus</italic> (Houart, 1986), 21 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, Coral Sea; <italic>M. warreni</italic> (Petuch, 1993), 2 spm (RH), Recent, Jamaica. <italic>Xastilia</italic>
               <italic>pattern:</italic>
               <italic>Xastilia kosugei</italic> Bouchet &amp; Houart, 1994, 3 spm (MNHN-DSE), Recent, Coral Sea. <italic>Rolandiella</italic>
               <italic>pattern:</italic>
               <italic>R. umbilicata</italic> (Tenison Woods, 1876), 10 spm (RH), Recent, South Australia; <italic>R. scotti</italic> (Marshall &amp; Burch, 2000), 6 spm (RH, NMNZ), Recent, New-Zealand; <italic>Undefined pattern:</italic>
               <italic>M. charcoti</italic> (Houart, 1991), 11 spm (MNHN-DSE), Recent, New-Caledonia; <italic>M. micra</italic> Houart, 2002, 34 spm (RH, MNHN-DSE), Recent, New-Caledonia; <italic>M. auratus</italic> (Kuroda &amp; Habe, 1971), 2 spm (NSMT, MNHN-DSE), Recent, Japan.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>4</label>
         <title>Method and previous works</title>
         <sec>
            <p>In order to identify homologous characters among the spiral cords, the adopted method consists in referring to their sequence appearance (ontogenetic correspondence) and their topological position (topological correspondence). This method, used in different works <xref rid="BIB9" ref-type="bibr">[9]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB10" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB12" ref-type="bibr">[12]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB13" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB18" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB20" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB21" ref-type="bibr">[21]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB22" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>, is helpful for the present study, because it allows to describe ontogenetic changes for homologous cords. Despite their interest to closely understand the morphogenesis of the spiral patterns, detailed ontogenetic descriptions of the cord development remain occasional <xref rid="BIB11" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB18" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB21" ref-type="bibr">[21]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB22" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>. Comparisons of several ontogenies of spiral cords have been made for Early Paleogene <italic>Paziella</italic> Jousseaume 1880 and <italic>Poirieria</italic> Jousseaume, 1880 <xref rid="BIB21" ref-type="bibr">[21]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB22" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>, attributed to the Muricinae. Using <italic>Paziella cretacea</italic> (Garvie, 1991) (Campanian-Maastrichtian, Texas) as primitive morphological reference with which to compare younger morphologies, the analyses emphasize that heterochronies <xref rid="BIB1" ref-type="bibr">[1]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB4" ref-type="bibr">[4]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB5" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB25" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref> are implicated in cord changes. So, paedomorphic evolutions of cords tend to generate a decrease of their expression by a later onset (post-displacement), whereas peramorphic evolutions tend to generate an increase of their expression by an earlier onset (pre-displacement) or by a higher growth rate (acceleration). In addition, the comparisons stress that heterochronic trends may be arranged in a mosaic pattern <xref rid="BIB3" ref-type="bibr">[3]</xref> and that cords can possess their own ontogenetic trajectories. It is precisely this concept of mosaic, which is explored through the <italic>Muricopsis-Murexsul</italic> lineages, in order to explain how ontogenetic changes may produce innovations of sculptural types.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>5</label>
         <title>The rise of the muricopsine spiral sculpture</title>
         <sec>
            <p>Early Palaeogene primitive muricids (e.g. <italic>Paziella, Poirieria</italic> and <italic>Pterynotus</italic>), attributed to the subfamily Muricinae, differ from the Muricopsinae by a poorly developed spiral sculpture. A spiral pattern, closely related to this of the Muricopsinae, is known since the Ypresian (Bashi Marl Member (Alabama, USA), biozone NP10) with <italic>Eofavartia</italic> Merle, 2002 (Ypresian-Priabonian, Atlantic Ocean) <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref> (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref> ). However, a cladistic analysis, based on shell characters, suggests that <italic>Eofavartia</italic> lacks several synapomorphies of the Muricopsinae clade and may be regarded as a potential sister-group (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>) <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>. In addition, the close study of the axial sculpture and micro-characters allows the distinguishing of two main subclades among the Muricopsinae, the <italic>Favartia/Pygmaepterys</italic> subclade and the <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> subclade <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>The primitive muricids are characterized by the late appearance of the cords (IP, P4, P5 and P6) when they are present, by lacking ADP, MP and ABP on the siphonal canal and by lacking or having poorly developed spiny processes (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>). Conversely, young specimens (between one and three teleoconch whorls) of <italic>Eofavartia</italic> are characterized by a spiral sculpture containing IP (the sutural ramp), P1 to P6 (the convex part of the whorl) and ABP to ADP (the siphonal canal) <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>. This new pattern indicates a selection for stronger shells earlier in ontogeny and probably results to a peramorphic evolution, adapical cords being more precocious (pre-displacement) than in primitive muricids (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>). The ‘Bauplan’ of the muricopsine spiral sculpture (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>) differs from <italic>Eofavartia</italic> by several transformations regarded as synapomorphies (P6 on the siphonal canal, P6 atrophy and loss of D6). The progressive atrophy of P6 during growth is the oldest example in the family of a cord reduction when more abapical primary cords are already placed. In the Muricopsinae, P6 is adapically placed on the siphonal canal and its atrophy probably allows a better development of P5 and ADP. In the geological record, the first occurrence of the pattern based on this ‘Bauplan’ is reported from the Middle Eocene (Bartonian, Paris Basin) with <italic>?Favartia distans</italic> (Deshayes, 1835). The generic attribution is still uncertain, this species lacking apomorphies of the most similar genera: <italic>Favartia</italic> Jousseaume, 1880 and <italic>Homalocantha</italic> Mörch, 1852. The oldest authenticated Muricopsinae are recorded in the Priabonian with <italic>Murexsul</italic> (France and Australia) and in the Rupelian with <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (France) and <italic>Favartia</italic> (Mississippi) <xref rid="BIB15" ref-type="bibr">[15]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>. During the Rupelian, the spiral pattern remains very similar in the three genera and, it is only from the Chattian that the first new patterns appear in the <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> subclade.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>6</label>
         <title>The spiral patterns in the <italic>Muricopsis–Murexsul</italic> lineages</title>
         <sec>
            <p>Several authors <xref rid="BIB24" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB27" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref> distinguish <italic>Muricopsis</italic> and <italic>Murexsul</italic> as two distinct genera, whereas others consider <italic>Murexsul</italic> as a subgenus of <italic>Muricopsis</italic>
               <xref rid="BIB6" ref-type="bibr">[6]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB7" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB8" ref-type="bibr">[8]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>, or as a junior synonym <xref rid="BIB23" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>. According to these authors, both genera are closely related, but a distinction indicating two clades can be made (Merle and Houart in prep.). <italic>Muricopsis</italic> possesses several apomorphies (e.g., nodules on the teleoconch whorls and hypermorphic D2 on the outer lip) lacking in the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group Secondly, three other taxa appear closely related to <italic>Muricopsis</italic> and to <italic>Murexsul. Risomurex</italic> Olsson &amp; McGinty, 1958 (type-species: <italic>Ricinula deformis</italic> Reeve, 1846 by SD <xref rid="BIB14" ref-type="bibr">[14]</xref>), considered as subgenus of <italic>Muricopsis</italic>
               <xref rid="BIB29" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref> is here restricted to four species. <italic>Xastilia</italic> Bouchet &amp; Houart, 1994 (type-species: <italic>X. kosugei</italic> Bouchet &amp; Houart, 1994 by OD <xref rid="BIB2" ref-type="bibr">[2]</xref>) and <italic>Rolandiella</italic> Marshall &amp; Burch, 2000 (type-species: <italic>Muricopsis (R.) scotti</italic> Marshall &amp; Burch, 2000 by OD <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>) are included here in the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group. Therefore, the detailed analysis of their spiral sculpture will be presented and discussed in this paper.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>6.1</label>
            <title>Spiral patterns of <italic>Muricopsis</italic>
            </title>
            <sec>
               <p>
                  <italic>Muricopsis</italic> is represented by 31 species from the Rupelian to the Recent. The primitive morphological reference of the spiral sculpture (<xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2A</xref> ) used here is <italic>M. (s.s.) crassicosta</italic> (Chattian, Aquitaine), because the oldest member <italic>Muricopsis (s.s.)</italic> sp. (Rupelian, Aquitaine) is known by a unique fragment <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>. The primitive condition is widespread (71% of the species) and also occurs in the type-species of <italic>Muricopsis (s.s.)</italic> and <italic>M. (Risomurex)</italic> (<xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3A-C</xref> ). It corresponds to a series of primary cords P1 to P5 (convex part of the whorl) and P6 to MP (siphonal canal). From P1 to P5, the relief of cords regularly decreases, the maximum of decrease being observed on P6 which growth slower that P5 and ADP. A new increase of the relief starts with ADP, and then the relief of cords once decreases until the MP. These features are already present in young specimens of one whorls, except for ADP, MP which appear later. The cords IP (sutural ramp), ABP (siphonal canal) and spines on the nodules may also occur in the oldest <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (e.g., <italic>M. (s.s.) crassicosta</italic>), but bear numerous intraspecific variations. Thus, IP may appear between the beginning of the first whorl (e.g. <italic>M. (Risomurex) rosea</italic> and <italic>M. (R.) schrammi</italic>) and the third whorl (e.g. <italic>M. (s.s.) scabrosa</italic> and <italic>M. (s.s.) dujardini</italic>), spines may be developed on the nodules (e.g. <italic>M. (s.s.) cristata</italic> and <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic>) or not (e.g. <italic>M. (s.s.) dujardini, M. (R.) rosea, M. (s.s.) suga</italic>) and ABP may lack in 32% of the species. For these reasons, only to P1 to MP, the less variable cords, are used as morphological reference of the primitive condition. As defined here, three sculptural patterns differ from this condition and represent innovations (<xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3D–F</xref>).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>
                  <italic>M. josei</italic>
                  <italic>pattern</italic> (<xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref> and <xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3</xref>) – As in other <italic>Muricopsis</italic>, the three first teleoconch whorls possess nodules. A spine on the nodules appears on the fourth whorl. At the beginning of this whorl, P3 is still not atrophied, but in the following whorls, the P3 cord grows less than P1 and P2 and becomes progressively atrophied. This change may be regarded as the result of a paedomorphic evolution of the cord (deceleration). The atrophy of P3 is unique in the genus. <italic>M. zeteki</italic>
                  <italic>pattern</italic> (<xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3E</xref>) – The group includes three species (see § <italic>Material</italic>). The change is observed on P2. The first early whorls possess nodules on which P2 is not atrophied. Spines on the nodules appear later, on the fourth whorl in <italic>M. (s.s.) zeteki</italic> and on the third in <italic>M. (s.s.) pauxilla</italic>. When the P1 spine appears, the relief of P2 begins to decrease. Then, it is partially absorbed at the base of the P1 spine and becomes undistinguishable from secondary and tertiary cords in the adulthood. As in <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic>, this atrophy may be regarded as the result of a paedomorphic evolution of the cord (deceleration). <italic>M. suga</italic>
                  <italic>pattern</italic> (<xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3F</xref>) – The <italic>M. (s.s.) suga</italic> group includes four species. The cord change is observed on P6. In these species, P6 does not grow slower than the P5 and the ADP cords (as in other <italic>Muricopsis</italic>) and does not produce an atrophy of the sculpture in this part of the shell. This change may be regarded as an acceleration of the growth of P6, giving a ‘hyper developed’ cord in comparison to the primitive condition. The cladistic analysis <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref> suggests to consider the P6 atrophy as a synapomorphy of the Muricopsinae and this exceptional feature found in four West-African species probably represents a case of reversion (Merle and Houart in prep.) at the subfamilial level.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>6.2</label>
            <title>Spiral patterns of the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group</title>
            <sec>
               <p>The <italic>Murexsul</italic> group including <italic>Xastilia</italic> and <italic>Rolandiella</italic> contains about 55 species from the Priabonian to the Recent. The primitive morphological reference of the spiral sculpture (<xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2B</xref>) used here is based on <italic>M. prionotus</italic> (Priabonian, Australia), which represents the one of oldest member of the genus <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>. European Palaeogene <italic>Murexsul</italic> (e.g. <italic>Murexsul</italic> sp. (Priabonian), <italic>M. elatospira</italic> (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4A</xref> ) and <italic>M. meunieri</italic> (Oligocene)) are very similar and only differ from Australian <italic>Murexsul</italic> (<italic>M. prionotus</italic> and <italic>M. octogonus</italic> (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4B</xref>)) in having a slight P2 atrophy on the first whorl <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>. Another change, regarded as a variant of the primitive pattern has also been detected in several species (mainly South-African species) lacking MP (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4C</xref>). As defined here, the primitive condition is represented by 54% of the species. Regarding the spiral pattern, the condition is very comparable to this of <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (<xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2A–B</xref>) and variations occur on the same topological positions (IP and ABP). So, IP is poorly distinct of the secondary cords (e.g. <italic>M. ianlochi</italic> and <italic>X. kosugei</italic>) in 48% of the species and ABP is polymorphic (absent and present) (e.g., <italic>M. elatospira</italic> or <italic>M. oxytatus</italic>) in 34% of the species, or always lacks (e.g., <italic>M. metivieri</italic> and <italic>M. tokubei</italic>) in 49% of the species. In addition, MP is polymorphic (absent or present) in 6% of the species and always lack in 15% of the species. Excluding the too variable cords, as in the <italic>Muricopsis</italic> study, three derived sculptural patterns have been detected (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4D-I</xref>).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>
                  <italic>Rolandiella</italic>
                  <italic>pattern</italic> (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4D</xref>) – According to Marshall and Burch (2000) <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>, <italic>Rolandiella</italic> includes two species (<italic>R. scotti</italic> and <italic>R. umbilicata</italic>). On the first teleoconch whorl, P1 and P2 are more spaced than in typical <italic>Murexsul</italic>
                  <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>. The main change is observed on P5 which becomes progressively atrophied during the growth. This change generates a band less ornamented between P4 and ADP, which is larger than in typical <italic>Murexsul. M. oxytatus</italic>
                  <italic>pattern</italic> (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4E–H</xref>) – The <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> pattern is represented by 32% of the examined <italic>Murexsul</italic> (12 species). The derived condition appears on P2 which grows slower than P1 and P3 and becomes atrophied in the adulthood. As in the <italic>M. zeteki</italic> pattern, the progressive atrophy of P2 may be interpreted as the result of a deceleration of the cord. Different degrees of the P2 atrophy are also observed. In <italic>M. huberti</italic> (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4E</xref>), <italic>M. warreni, M. rostralis, M. cuspidatus</italic> (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4G</xref>) and in several populations of <italic>M. oxytatus</italic>, P2 is still marked in the intervarical space, whereas in other populations of <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> (<xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3F</xref>), in <italic>M. zylmanae</italic> and <italic>M. sunderlandi</italic>, a strongly reduced P2 corresponds to a small spine on the varical space. <italic>M. ianlochi</italic> (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4H</xref>) bears a similar pattern, but is characterized by hypermorphic P1, P3 and ADP cord spines, resulting from an acceleration of the development. <italic>Xastilia</italic> pattern (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4I</xref>) – <italic>Xastilia</italic> differs from the <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> pattern by the progressive atrophy of P2 and P3 and by a hypermorphic cord spines on P1, P4 and ADP. Undefined pattern – Three very small (of 5 mm in height) species have a progenetic aspect with an ambiguous sculptural pattern (see Materials). They have four primary cords on the convex part of the whorl instead of five in the other species, but it is still difficult to know if they lack P2 or P5.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Finally, in the <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> lineages, paedomorphic evolutions of the cords (mainly deceleration) yielding atrophies are dominant on P2 (24% of species), MP (25% of the species) and ABP (61% of the species). Conversely, hypermorphic cords resulting from peramorphic evolutions occur on P1 (3% of the species), P3 (1.4% of the species), P4 (1.4% of the species) and ADP (1.4% of the species). These last cords, bearing few transformations, appear the most stable cords of the spiral sculpture. In order to closely explore this contrast of the cord evolution, two further observations need to be considered. First, the number of primary cords of the <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> primitive pattern already approaches the maximum found in the family <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>. Compared to other tropical taxa, additions and developments of cords appear in <italic>Murex</italic> (Muricinae) <xref rid="BIB13" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB18" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>, but these shells reach 90 mm in size. A large size allows the placing of a sculptural increase (e.g., stronger secondary cords and better development of the spines). So, a size constraint may explain that peramorphic cords cannot appear on all primary cords of the <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> primitive pattern, but probably only on the most functional cords for the protection of the organism. Second, peramorphic evolutions of cords are well expressed in the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group (<italic>Xastilia</italic> pattern and <italic>M. ianlochi</italic>) (<xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4H–I</xref>) only when the relief of other cords decreases. In the case of these middle sized shells, the observed pathway allowing a production of hypermorphic cords associates the atrophy of other cords, probably because the necessary space to develop all cords is too restricted.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>7</label>
         <title>Biogeographic range of the spiral patterns</title>
         <sec>
            <p>
               <italic>Muricopsis – Muricopsis</italic> occurs from tropical to warm temperate waters (surface temperatures between 15 °C and 28 °C) in the Mediterranean, the Atlantic Ocean, the eastern Pacific and the western Indian Ocean (<xref rid="FIG5" ref-type="fig">Fig. 5</xref> ). The primitive pattern is widespread in the whole range of the genus. The <italic>M. josei</italic> pattern is restricted to northern Brazil and no similar fossils are recorded (Vokes 1994 <xref rid="BIB27" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>). The oldest members of <italic>M. zeteki</italic> pattern are known from the Early Pliocene from Trinidad (Atlantic Ocean), but Recent members live in the eastern Pacific from northern Gulf of California (20 °C) to Central America (25–28 °C) and Galapagos Island. The <italic>M. suga</italic> pattern is restricted to West-Africa from Mauritania (20°C) to northern Angola (24–25 °C) and no fossils are known. Consequently, derived patterns exclusively appear in tropical waters for surface temperatures included between 20 and 28 °C (<xref rid="FIG5" ref-type="fig">Fig. 5</xref>). <italic>Murexsul</italic> group - The range of the group is wider than this of <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (<xref rid="FIG6" ref-type="fig">Fig. 6</xref> ). It is well represented in the Pacific Ocean and members live in South-Africa and New-Zealand for surface temperatures of the water included between 12 and 20 °C. The primitive condition is mainly represented in South-Australia and in South-Africa with species lacking MP and ABP (e.g., <italic>M. tokubei</italic> and <italic>M. nothokieneri</italic>). Nevertheless, members are also known, in the Mediterranean Sea (<italic>M. aradasii</italic>), in the Indian Ocean (<italic>M. reunionensis</italic>) and in Japan (<italic>M. interserratus</italic> and <italic>M. tokubei</italic>), in Galapagos (<italic>M. jacquelinae</italic>) and several Atlantic American species [<italic>M. harasewychi</italic> Petuch, 1987, <italic>M. emipowlusi</italic> Abbott, 1954 and <italic>M. thalmanni</italic> (Vokes, 1968)] may be referable to the primitive pattern. The <italic>Rolandiella</italic> pattern extends from New-Zealand to South-Australia <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref> in water having a surface temperature included between 17 and 20°C. The <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> pattern (<xref rid="FIG6" ref-type="fig">Fig. 6</xref>) is widespread in tropical waters, particularly in Caribbean and in the Neogene from the Gulf coastal plain (8 species), eastern America (3 species) and Pacific Ocean (4 species). In Europe, only one Recent species (<italic>M. cevikeri</italic>) is recorded in the warm temperate waters from southern Mediterranean Sea <xref rid="BIB11" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref> and no West-African species are known. The oldest members bearing this pattern are reported in the French Chattian (<italic>M. rostralis</italic>) and in the Lower Miocene from Florida (Vokes 1994, pl.1, <xref rid="FIG5" ref-type="fig">Fig. 5</xref>
               <xref rid="BIB27" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>). The <italic>Xastilia</italic> pattern is restricted to the Coral Sea and <italic>X. kosugei</italic> lives between 260 and 300 m <xref rid="BIB2" ref-type="bibr">[2]</xref>. In this sector and for this depth, the temperature of the waters falls at about 16 °C. As in <italic>Muricopsis</italic>, new patterns are mainly produced in tropical waters (<xref rid="FIG6" ref-type="fig">Fig. 6</xref>), but particularly in two sectors of high marine biodiversity: the Pacific Ocean (Indonesia, Coral Sea, North-Australia, New-Caledonia) and the Central America (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Pacific).</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>8</label>
         <title>Conclusions</title>
         <sec>
            <p>The spiral sculpture of 68 species belonging to the <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> lineages (Priabonian to Recent) has been examined. The close inspection of the cord development allows the distinguishing of three derived patterns in <italic>Muricopsis</italic> and three in the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group, regarded as sculptural innovations. The geological record indicates that they appear lately in the evolutionary history of the studied lineages (Pliocene for <italic>Muricopsis</italic> and Late Oligocene for <italic>Murexsul</italic>). Their biogeographic range also reveals that they are mainly generated in tropical waters (Pacific Ocean and Central American seas). These sculptural innovations are also produced by heterochronic evolutions of one or several cords, indicating a morphological dissociation of spiral elements in which the relief of precise cords may decrease (by paedomorphosis), whereas this of other cords poorly evolved or may be more developed (by peramorphosis) (<xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref>, <xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3</xref> and <xref rid="FIG4" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4</xref>). Then, the results suggest that after the initial phase of sculptural increase yielding the primitive pattern of <italic>Muricopsis/Murexsul</italic> characterized by a complete series of primary cords early in the ontogeny (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref> and <xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref>), comes a second selective phase preserving or increasing only the probable most functional cords, all cords being not developed. Further investigations on other tropical muricids (e.g., Rapaninae or Muricinae) will be necessary in order to know whether homologous cords are selected in different morphological types and to closely explore the cord functionalities in the family.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
   </body>
   <back>
      <ack>
         <title>Acknowledgements</title>
         <p>We are indebeted to all people who kindly loaned material: V. Heros, P. Lozouet, P. Maestrati, J. Le Renard (MNHN-DSE), Steve Tracey [BM(NH)], Bruce Marshall (NMNZ), Peter Jung (NMB) and E. Rolan (Vigo, Spain). We thank very much Didier Marchand et Pascal Neige (Université de Bourgogne, Dijon) for their constructive comments on the paper. Thanks also to Jean-Michel Pacaud (MNHN-DHT) for his beautiful drawings.</p>
      </ack>
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   <floats-group>
      <fig id="FIG1">
         <label>Fig. 1</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Comparison of the spiral sculpture between a primitive muricid (e.g., the Muricinae <italic>Paziella</italic>), <italic>Eofavartia</italic> (sister group of the Muricopsinae) and the Muricopsinae (e.g. <italic>Muricopsis</italic>). It suggests a pre-displacement of the primary cords (P4-P6) and the addition of ADP-ABP in <italic>Eofavartia</italic> and the Muricopsinae. The Muricopsinae bear a deceleration of P6, which becomes atrophied in the adult. The simplified phylogenetic hypothesis is based on the tree by Merle (2002) <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>. CS = siphonal canal.</p>
            <p>Fig. 1. Comparaison de la sculpture spirale entre un Muricidae primitif (exemple : le Muricinae <italic>Paziella</italic>), <italic>Eofavartia</italic> (groupe-frère des Muricopsinae) et un Muricopsinae (ex. : <italic>Muricopsis</italic>). Elle suggère un pré-déplacement des cordons primaires (P4-P6) et l’addition de ADP-ABP chez <italic>Eofavartia</italic> et les Muricopsinae. Les Muricopsinae présentent une décélération de P6 s’atrophiant chez l’adulte. L’hypothèse phylogénétique simplifiée est fondée sur l’arbre de Merle (2002) <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>. CS = canal siphonal.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx1.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG2">
         <label>Fig. 2</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Examples of heterochronies of the spiral primary cords in <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (A) and <italic>Murexsul</italic> (B) – <bold>A</bold>: In the youngs of <italic>M. crassicosta</italic> (primitive morphological reference of <italic>Muricopsis</italic>) and <italic>M. josei</italic> (derived form), P3 is not atrophied. In the adults of <italic>M. josei</italic> (<italic>M. josei</italic> pattern), the P3 atrophy is regarded as a deceleration of the cord during the ontogeny. <bold>B</bold>: in the youngs of <italic>M. prionotus</italic> (primitive morphological reference of the <italic>Murexsul</italic> lineage) and <italic>M. rostralis</italic> (derived form, <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> pattern), P2 is not atrophied. In the adults of <italic>M. rostralis</italic>, the P2 atrophy is also regarded as a deceleration of the cord.</p>
            <p>Fig. 2. Exemples d’hétérochronies de développement des cordons primaires chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic> (A) et <italic>Murexsul</italic> (B). <bold>A</bold> : Chez les jeunes de <italic>M. crassicosta</italic> (forme primitive de référence utilisée pour <italic>Muricopsis</italic>) et de <italic>M. josei</italic> (forme dérivée), P3 n’est pas atrophié. Chez les adultes de <italic>M. josei</italic>, l’atrophie de P3 est interprétée comme une décélération du cordon pendant l’ontogenèse. <bold>B</bold> : Chez les jeunes de <italic>M. prionotus</italic> (forme primitive de référence utilisée pour la lignée des <italic>Murexsul</italic>) et <italic>M. rostralis</italic> (forme dérivée), P2 n’est pas atrophié. Chez les adultes de <italic>M. rostralis</italic> (groupe de <italic>M. oxytatus</italic>), l’atrophie de P2 est aussi interprétée comme une décélération du cordon.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx2.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG3">
         <label>Fig. 3</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Primitive (A-C) and derived sculptural patterns (D-F) in <italic>Muricopsis</italic>. <bold>A</bold>: young <italic>M. (Risomurex) deformis</italic> (Recent, Roatan (Honduras), RH); <bold>B</bold>: adult <italic>M. (R.) deformis</italic> (Recent, Roatan (Honduras), RH); <bold>C</bold>: <italic>M. (s.s.) cristata</italic> (Pliocene, Sienna (Italy), MNHN-DHT); <bold>D</bold>: <italic>M. josei</italic> pattern (P3 atrophied in the adulthood), <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic> (Recent, Garapari (Brazil), RH); <bold>E</bold>: <italic>M. zeteki</italic> pattern (P2 atrophied in the adulthood), <italic>M. (s.s.) zeteki</italic> (Recent, Panama, RH); <bold>F</bold>: <italic>M. suga</italic> pattern (P6 is not atrophied), <italic>M. (s.s.) suga discissus</italic> (Recent, Caotinha (Angola), MNHN-DSE). Scale bar = 1 mm.</p>
            <p>Fig. 3. Sculptures primitives (A-C) et dérivées (D-F) chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic>. <bold>A</bold> : jeune de <italic>M. (R.) deformis</italic> (Actuel, Honduras) ; <bold>B</bold> : adulte de <italic>M. (R.) deformis</italic> (Actuel, Honduras) ; <bold>C</bold> : <italic>M. (s.s.) cristata</italic> (Pliocène, Italie); <bold>D</bold> : type <italic>M. josei</italic> (atrophie de P3 chez l’adulte), <italic>M. (s.s.) josei</italic> (Actuel, Brésil) ; <bold>E</bold> : type <italic>M. zeteki</italic> (atrophie de P2 chez l’adulte), <italic>M. (s.s.) zeteki</italic> (actuel, Panama) ; <bold>F</bold> : <italic>M. suga pattern</italic> (P6 non atrophié), <italic>M. (s.s.) suga discissus</italic> (Actuel, Angola). Echelle = 1 mm.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx3.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG4">
         <label>Fig. 4</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Primitive (<bold>A–C</bold>) and derived sculptural patterns (<bold>D–I</bold>) in the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group. <bold>A</bold>: <italic>M. elatospira</italic> (Chattian, Peyrehorade (France), holotype, MNHN-DHT); <bold>B</bold>: <italic>M. octogonus</italic> (Pleistocene, Castlecliff (New-Zealand), MNHN-DHT); <bold>C</bold>: <italic>M. tokubei</italic> (Recent, Richards bay (South-Africa), RH), variant of pattern with the loss of MP and ABP; <bold>D</bold>: <italic>Rolandiella</italic> pattern (P5 atrophied in the adulthood), <italic>R. scotti</italic> (Recent, North island (New-Zealand, paratype NMNZ); <bold>E–H</bold>: <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> pattern (P2 atrophied in the adulthood), <bold>E</bold>: <italic>M. huberti</italic> (Recent, Grenadines island, RH), <bold>F</bold>: <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> (Recent, Cienfuego (Cuba), RH), <bold>G</bold>: <italic>M. cuspidatus</italic> (Recent, New-Caledonia, MNHN-DSE), <bold>H</bold>: <italic>M. ianlochi</italic> (Recent, Tasman Sea, paratype, MNHN-DSE); <bold>I</bold>: <italic>Xastilia</italic> pattern (hypermorphic P1, P4, ADP and P2, P3 atrophied), <italic>X. kosugei</italic> (Recent, Coral sea, paratype, MNHN-DHT). Scale bar = 1 mm.</p>
            <p>Fig. 4. Sculptures primitives (<bold>A–C</bold>) et dérivées (<bold>D–I</bold>) dans le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>. <bold>A</bold> : <italic>M. elatospira</italic> (Chattien, France); <bold>B</bold> : <italic>M. octogonus</italic> (Pléistocene, Nouvelle-Zélande) ; <bold>C</bold> : <italic>M. tokubei</italic> (Actuel, Afrique du Sud), variante de la sculpture primitive avec perte de ABP et de MP; <bold>D</bold> : Type <italic>Rolandiella</italic> (atrophie de P5 chez l’adulte), <italic>R. scotti</italic> (Actuel, Nouvelle-Zélande) ; <bold>E–H</bold>: type <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> (atrophie de P2 chez l’adulte), <bold>E</bold> : <italic>M. huberti</italic> (Actuel, îles Grenadines), <bold>F</bold> : <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> (actuel, Cuba), <bold>G</bold> : <italic>M. cuspidatus</italic> (Actuel, Nouvelle-Calédonie), <bold>H</bold> : <italic>M. ianlochi</italic> (Actuel, mer de Tasmanie) ; <bold>I</bold> : <italic>Xastilia pattern</italic> (hypermorphie de P1, P4, ADP et atrophie de P2, et P3), <italic>X. kosugei</italic> (Actuel, mer de Corail). Echelle = 1 mm.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx4.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG5">
         <label>Fig. 5</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Geographic range of primitive and derived sculptural patterns in <italic>Muricopsis</italic>. Primitive pattern = triangle; <italic>M. zeteki</italic> pattern = circle; <italic>M. suga pattern</italic> = square; <italic>M. josei</italic> pattern = star (Recent = black ground, fossil = white ground).</p>
            <p>Fig. 5. Distribution géographique des sculptures primitives et dérivées chez <italic>Muricopsis</italic>. Sculpture primitive = triangle ; type <italic>M. zeteki</italic> = cercle; type <italic>M. suga</italic> = carré; type <italic>M. josei</italic> = étoile (Actuel = fond noir ; fossile = fond blanc).</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx5.jpg"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG6">
         <label>Fig. 6</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Geographic range of primitive and derived sculptural patterns in the <italic>Murexsul</italic> group. Primitive pattern = triangle; <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> pattern = circle; <italic>Rolandiella</italic> pattern = cross; <italic>Xastilia</italic> pattern = star. Recent = black ground, fossil = white ground.</p>
            <p>Fig. 6. Distribution géographique des sculptures primitives et dérivées dans le groupe des <italic>Murexsul</italic>. Sculpture primitive = triangle ; type <italic>M. oxytatus</italic> = cercle ; type <italic>Rolandiella</italic> = croix; type <italic>Xastilia</italic> = étoile. Actuel = fond noir ; fossile = fond blanc.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx6.jpg"/>
      </fig>
   </floats-group>
</article>